MEV 011: Unit 04 - Environmental Sustainability

UNIT 4 - ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY

4.1 Introduction

Sustainable development talks about a development scenario where resources are consumed so that humans’ needs are not compromised in the present, and resource availability is also ensured for the future. On an international platform, the idea of environmental equity and sustainable use of resources was first discussed in the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (UNCHE), held in Stockholm, Sweden, in 1972. For the first time, the representatives of 114 countries attended a conference that brought the environment to the forefront and established that economic development is not independent of environment conservation.

The declaration of the United Nations Conference on Human Environment recognized the finite nature of resources available on earth and emphasized its judicious use to remain available for future generations. It also recognized that developmental needs are different for developing and developed nations. A large population in developing countries is living below a decent standard of living required in food, clothing, shelter, and health. The developing countries must strive to meet the needs of the population and, at the same time, manage the resources well. On the other hand, the developed nations need to balance the resource consumption pattern and increasing demands.

In 1987, the Brundtland Commission’s report Our Common Future formally defined sustainable development as “the development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the needs of the future generations to meet their own needs” and proposed solutions to challenges like food security, biodiversity loss, and industrial pollution. The report introduced the "three pillars of sustainability":

1.      Environmental Viability: This aspect focuses on developing ideas and products that put the least risk on the environment and minimizes resource consumption. The lifecycle assessment of any product can describe its production, usage, and impact as a waste dumped on the environment. The products with lower water and carbon footprints can be sustained environmentally for a longer period.

2.      Economic Feasibility: From the business and profitability perspective, economic viability/profitability is the most important driving force. In the long run, a business pattern in coherence with the concept of environment conservation is likely to last longer successfully. The industrial sector anywhere in the world relies on natural resources, e.g., coal, freshwater, wood, metals, minerals, etc. They all are essential raw materials for major industrial processes. Ensuring their availability, in the long run, is crucial to the health of the industry. Whenever the supply starts reducing, the manufacturing and processing cost increases, reflected in its final pricing.

3.      Social Acceptability: For any environmentally sustainable idea to be successful, it must be accepted and adopted. The social acceptance comes with the convenience of use, appropriate pricing, upliftment of the local, indigenous talent, and resources. All the stakeholders in the society, employers, employees, consumers have to be satisfactorily involved.

Sustainable development requires a balance among environmental, economic, and social considerations for long-term success.

4.2 Objectives

After studying this unit, you should be able to:

•        discuss the concept of sustainable development;

•        discuss the steps to achieve sustainable development through specific targets and indicators;

•        discuss the international efforts towards sustainable future for climate change, biodiversity conservation and movement of hazardous substances; and

•        identify different ethical viewpoints towards environment.

4.3 Environmental Sustainability: Targets and Indicators

As discussed earlier, sustainable development is achieved when all three pillars stand strong. The environmental viability pillar, in particular, focuses on ecosystems and the support they provide to humankind. Achieving a sustainable solution must involve an understanding of economic processes (procuring raw material, production, and disposal of waste) and its impact on the environment and health.

Sustainable Development

To objectively identify and describe environmental sustainability, certain goals and targets are set, and the changes these targets would reflect on the environment are measured using specific indicators. All the targets underline the fundamentals of environmental conservation and minimal harm to society. From time to time, the world has come together to incorporate environmental values in the economic system. Some of the targets that have played a defining role in the world’s modern environmental history are discussed here.

4.3.1 Millennium Development Goals

In the year 2000, the United Nations Millennium summit adopted certain goals known as Millennial Development Goals (MDGs) to be achieved by 2015. The eight MDGs and seventeen targets under them have specific indicators to measure their success. Table below gives MDGs and the targets assigned under environmental sustainability.

The Millennial Development Goals, targets, and indicators

Goal 1	Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
Goal 2	Achieve universal primary education
Goal 3	Promote gender equality and empower women
Goal 4	Reduce child mortality
Goal 5	Improve maternal health.
Goal 6	Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases
Goal 7	Ensure environmental sustainability.
Targets for Goal 7	Integrate the principle of sustainable development into country’s policies and programs, and reverse environmental resource loss. Indicator: •        The proportion of land area covered with forests. •        Consumption of ozone-depleting substances. •        The proportion of terrestrial and marine areas protected. Reduce by half the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation. Indicator •        The proportion of people using improved drinking water sources. •        The proportion of people using improved sanitation facility. Achieve a significant improvement in the lives of at least 100 million slum dwellers by 2020. Indicator •        The proportion of the urban population living in slums.
Goal 8	Forge a global partnership for development.

The Millennium Development Goals targets were partially met in terms of Environmental Sustainability children’s education (goal 2), decreasing mortality rate (goal 4), and removing extreme poverty (goal 1). However, the target that was far from being successfully implemented was goal 7 on environmental sustainability. The goals’ incomplete success can be linked to limitations like inadequate resources, lack of focus and accountability, and ambiguity on how the targets were designed.

4.3.1 Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)

Under the MDGs, Goal 7: Ensure Environmental Sustainability addressed global environmental concerns. The targets aimed to:

• Integrate sustainability into policies: Encourage nations to incorporate environmental concerns into development strategies to combat deforestation, biodiversity loss, and climate change.
• Reverse the loss of environmental resources: Halve the proportion of people without access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation.
• Improve living conditions for slum dwellers: Enhance the quality of life for at least 100 million slum residents.

Indicators:

• Forest area as a percentage of land.
• Carbon dioxide emissions and energy use.
• Proportion of the population with access to safe drinking water and sanitation.
• Proportion of urban population living in slums.

Achievements:
Progress included improved access to water and sanitation and better urban living conditions, but global biodiversity loss and deforestation continued.

4.3.2 Sustainable Development Goals

To achieve sustainable development, addressing all the environmental challenges the world is facing today, a comprehensive plan to implement sustainability is a must. To achieve that, United Nations member states adopted seventeen goals known as Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in 2015. The goals are quite comprehensive, covering all the aspects of development. These seventeen goals strive for sustainability, taking up different social and environmental causes, and successfully attaining them by 2030. They are as follows:

1. No poverty: Much progress has been made on eradicating poverty since 1990, but the poverty figures indicate that a large population of the world is still poor. Population living on wages of less than 2$US/day is huge in South Asia. It is important to address poverty imperatively as it is mostly the poor who are more vulnerable to climate change impacts.

2. Zero Hunger: With the development of agricultural technology, food production has increased, and the number of people dying of hunger has decreased drastically. Food security remains a major challenge, as the quality parameters of food are not met. In many developing countries, malnutrition is affecting millions of children and adults.

3. Good health and wellbeing: This goal is to achieve good health for all and wellbeing at all ages. Good health is primary for the development of a healthy society. A large population in developing countries does not have access to health services and insurances. Much progress has been made in increasing life expectancy and medicines availability for chronic and life-threatening diseases like diabetes and blood pressure, etc., yet, a lot is left to achieve. The goal would be fulfilled only when the health services reach the poorest of the poor.

4. Quality education: Aims to achieve quality and inclusive education from learning and obtain skills for a lifetime providing job opportunities.

5. Gender equality: Much work that women do in the formal and informal sectors goes unnoticed, as women are either not paid or paid less than their male counterparts. This goal is set to achieve gender equality for women in all spheres of life. The work done by women can contribute substantially to the economic growth of the country.

6. Clean water and sanitation: There is a large part of the world’s population that do not have access to clean drinking water, and many more do not have access to clean sanitation services. Both are primary requirements for a healthy life. Lacking these, people are subjected to many water-borne diseases. Huge infrastructural investments are needed to provide clean drinking water and sanitation services to all.

7. Affordable and clean energy: Energy is an essential requirement for development in the industrial, agricultural, and domestic sectors. In India, we have been dependent on energy from non-renewable sources for a long time. The need of the hour is the availability of energy for all generated in an environment-friendly manner. Non-conventional sources hold the key to the future of energy. India has taken a key step towards developing solar energy through the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, giving subsidies to set up solar power plants.

8. Decent work and economic growth: This goal aims to promote sustainable economic growth and simultaneously provide decent working conditions. This also tries to support technological innovations that are environmentally friendly and save resources.

9. Industry innovation and infrastructure: This goal promotes technological innovations to address problems like urbanization, mass transportation, cheaper renewable energy, etc., and even internet connectivity that is crucial in the spread of information and knowledge.

10. Reduced inequalities: This goal intends to reduce the economic inequality that exists in society. A top few percent of the population owns or governs the majority of the resources. This inequality is less in developed countries and high in developing countries.

11. Sustainable cities and communities: This goal is about making our cities and urban areas more sustainable. With technological development and industrialization on the rise, urban sprawls come up and spread very fast. A large population of the world would be living in urban areas than rural by 2050. To make those cities able to thrive populations, growth pattern has to be sustainable.

13. Climate action: Climate change is an environmental emergency experienced by all the world countries to a different extent. The effect comes from an increase in the earth’s average temperature and frequent recurrence of natural calamities. Mostly, it is the poor that bear the brunt (चोट) of it. Huge infrastructural investment in shifting to lower carbon emissions, industrial processes and energy production is must to keep climate change under control.

14. Life below water: Oceans are major carbon reservoir and host to a great biodiversity. Fish and other seafood are a major source of food throughout the world. Fish stocks are too over-exploited to maintain a sustainable population. Mechanized fishing, pollution, climate change, ocean acidification is harming biodiversity like never before. This goal aims to manage marine and coastal systems sustainably.

15. Life on land: land and forest resources are extensively utilized and diverted for urbanization, industrialization, agricultural uses, and roads. Biodiversity conservation is a must to maintain the ecosystem processes, food chain, and prevent further degradation of land leading to desertification.

16. Peace justice and strong institutions: The three pillars of sustainable development would only be fulfilled when there is peace and functioning law and order situation in the community. Disturbance, gender inequality, insecurity, and violence in the community hampers the region’s economic growth and prosperity. Strengthening of institutions for the establishment of peace and security in society is essential for complete sustainability.

17. Partnerships for goals: Environment sustainability is a comprehensive process that requires coordination between developed and developing countries to cope better with natural disasters and technological exchange for environment-friendly industrial production and processes. According to the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development investments, trillions of dollars are required to accomplice SDGs.

All these goals may seem independent but work holistically to make an environmentally sustainable state. A comprehensive set of indicators (global indicator framework) is developed and updated regularly to measure these goals’ implementation status. The targets’ indicators are divided into subcategories based on age, sex, ethnicity, migratory status, or other categories.

The global indicator framework has 247 indicators, out of which 231 are unique, while a few are repeated under multiple goals as they encourage and indicate comprehensive growth of the society.

·         The environment-based goals like access to energy (goal 7) measure the population’s proportion with primary reliance on clean energy sources (indicator 7.1.2).

·         Goal 12 on sustainable production and consumption considers material footprint, material footprint per capita, and material footprint per GDP (indicator 12.2.1).

·         For the goal to take urgent action to combat climate change, indicators like the number of lives lost in natural disasters (13.1.1) and the measures taken for disaster risk reduction on the lines of Sendai framework, 2015-2030 (13.1.2) are there.

·         Goal 15 of promoting sustainable ecosystems has indicators like the proportion of forest cover for the total land area (15.1.1), coverage of protected sites to conserve mountain biodiversity (15.5.1), and the proportion of traded wildlife that was poached or illicitly trafficked (15.c.1).

4.3.3 Life Cycle Assessment

In addition to measurable SDG indicators, Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) evaluates emissions, resource consumption, environmental and health impacts, and resource depletion associated with products or services. This comprehensive analysis helps consumers, local bodies, and governments make informed decisions to enhance sustainability. LCA facilitates comparing alternatives based on their environmental impact, which can vary across regions and time scales. It also considers financial and environmental concerns as guiding principles for sustainable usage.

4.4 National and International Conventions

Efforts on the national and international fronts are required for sustainability to survive in the long run. Internationally, many conventions are held, treaties and protocols are signed to better society and conserve the environment. Some of the major conventions and protocols are discussed here.

4.4.1 Earth Summit 1992

The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), also known as Earth Summit/Rio Summit held in Rio-de-Janeiro, Brazil, from June 3 to June 14, 1992, is considered one landmark conference. The idea of environmental conservation, sustainable development, and the efforts to bridge the gaps between environment and economy were discussed internationally.

After the Stockholm conference in 1972, the Earth Summit was a step forward in taking concrete actions on the ground. Leaders from 170 countries worldwide, including 115 heads of the states, participated in the event. The conference was held to bring the member states on a common platform to achieve a bigger sustainability objective. The conference’s major outcomes include the Rio Declaration, Convention on forestry, also known as forest Principles, and Agenda 21. Some legally binding agreements like the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), Convention on Biodiversity, and Convention to Combat Desertification were also opened for signature to the member states. These are discussed briefly below:

·         Rio Declaration (Earth Charter): The declaration states 27 guiding principles for the conservation and restoration to maintain different ecosystems. The document was signed by all the heads of the States and Government representatives. It mentions the “Polluter Pays Principle,” which makes the polluter responsible for the damage caused to the natural environment and bear the clean-up cost. When we start to form a common baseline, it is observed that developed countries have caused a lot more pollution than developing countries. The cost they have to bear for clean-up is huge. The developing countries, which are still fulfilling basic requirements for their countrymen, may pollute in the time to come. The great outcome for bridging these gaps was the principle of “Common but differentiated responsibilities” to conserve ecosystems.

·         Convention on Forestry or Forestry Principles: It is a document that lays down forest conservation and sustainability principles. Initially, there was a lot of controversy over this issue as developed nations, like the U.S.A., Germany insisted (आग्रह) on having an internationally binding agreement for global conservation and forest management. This would help them globalize the forest resources of developing nations and use them for industrial processes. Countries like India were principally against this as forests are a resource and part of tradition (Sharma, 2015).It remains a non-legally binding agreement.

·         Agenda 21: Agenda 21 is a comprehensive document that lays down the principles of sustainable development covering all the aspects of society and came with a concrete plan for the implementation. It addresses the contemporary environmental problems and the social aspects aggravating poverty, social injustice, consumption patterns, human health conditions, etc. The agenda explicitly discussed the financial mechanisms and partnerships among the countries to achieve the goals mentioned above. It postulated that partnerships should be such that developing countries should get appropriate financial and technological assistance to meet sustainable growth targets. Environmentfriendly technology would enable the developing countries in the long run by reducing the damage done to the environment.

4.4.2 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Kyoto Protocol

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change is the first UN body involved in making policy to prevent climate change. It is a parent treaty of the Kyoto Protocol of 1997 and the Paris agreement of 2015. Under UNFCCC, annual meetings of member countries are held. It helps its 197 member states decide upon plans and policies to mitigate existing climate change and prevent further increase. It also helps them in devising new mechanisms for achieving the same goal.

Kyoto Protocol: The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, in December 1997 and came into force in February 2005. The protocol was set to reduce the emission of six major Green House Gases (GHG) like carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluor-ocarbons (PFCs), and sulfurhexafluoride (SF6). The protocol also encouraged financial mechanisms to achieve the targets through a carbon-credit system and coming up with non-renewable energy sources with fewer carbon emissions. It guided developed countries to provide funds for new technological implementation in developing countries yet to install and develop it.

Paris Agreement: In 2015, a major follow up agreement was signed by the member countries having to relook on the existing targets and reformulate them. It became more specific by setting the average global temperature limit to well below 2.0o C above pre-industrial levels. In this agreement, the member countries set their own Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) to prevent climate change. It came into force on 4th November 2016. Only 189 countries out of 197 member nations have ratified (विसंसोधन) the agreement.

4.4.3 Convention on Biological Diversity

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is an international agreement to conserve biodiversity, use its products sustainably, and share the benefits of utilizing biological, genetic resources. The convention came into force on December 29, 1993, and was ratified by 196 member nations. The Conference of Parties of the Convention, in due course of time, have developed important supplementary treaties contemporary to developing science and technology. Two such treaties are Cartagena Protocol and Nagoya Protocol.

Cartagena Protocol: The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biodiversity. It was adopted on January 29, 2000, in Montreal, Canada (originally scheduled for Cartagena, Quebec) and came into force on 11th September 2003. A total of 173 of the member nations have ratified it.The protocol is about the movement of Living Modified Organisms (LMOs) across the countries as it can be a potential risk to any country’s native biodiversity. The biosafety protocol encourages countries to declare complete information about such organisms to make an informed decision by the importing countries.

Nagoya Protocol: The Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization to the Convention on Biodiversity. The protocol provides a framework for fulfilling one of the objectives of CBD. It was adopted on 29th October 2010 in Nagoya, Japan, and came into force on 12th October 2014. Providing legal clarity and transparency and distributing benefits of utilizing genetic resources fairly is the protocol’s main aim. It also details the mechanisms at national levels to attain the objectives.

4.4.4 United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)

The UNCCD is an international legally binding agreement focussing on preventing land degradation and achieving sustainable land management. The Convention was adopted on 17th June 1994 in Paris and came into force in December 1996. In all, 197 member parties have ratified it. The convention is strategic towards preventing land degradation through natural processes as the drylands lose soil productivity and tend to expand, which may lead to desertification over time. In its 2018-2030 target, the convention is committed to achieving Land degradation Neutrality (LDN) to restore degraded lands’ productivity.

4.4.5 Vienna Convention on the Protection of the Ozone Layer

The ozone hole over the South Pole was first discovered in 1985 by the British Antarctic Survey team led by Joseph Farman. The absence or reduction of ozone in the stratosphere can have harmful impacts on humans, flora, fauna, and other essential ecosystems on earth. Soon after discovering the ozone hole, an international convention was held in Vienna, Austria, in 1985, laying a framework for protecting the ozone layer by reducing the emission of Ozone Depleting Substances like chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). The convention was adopted on 22nd March 1985 and came into force on 22nd September 1988.

Montreal Protocol: The Montreal Protocol under Vienna convention specifies phasing (चरण) out production of Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS) to protect the ozone layer present in the stratosphere. It came into force on 16th September 1987, and in the year 2012, it became the first treaty to be universally ratified by all the countries of the world. The protocol has a comprehensive list of ODS like chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), halons, hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), and hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), etc. to be phased out with deadlines.

4.4.6 Convention on Migratory Species (CMS)

The convention, also known as the Bonn Convention, was adopted in 1979 and came into force in 1983. There are 117 parties to the agreement. The convention on the conservation of migratory species lays down a framework for the conservation of wildlife species (terrestrial, aquatic and avian) that migrate from one region to another to complete their life cycle. The states through which the migratory species pass are called the Range states, and a strong commitment on the part of the states is required to protect them as long as their stay in foreign territories. In order to achieve this, it coordinates not only with the states but NGOs and other partners as well. A list of species threatened for extinction is provided in its Appendix, and the convention encourages its range states to coordinate for the successful protection of the species.

4.4.7 International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)

It is a membership union of around 1400 member organizations across the world. The member’s organizations include governments, wildlife organizations, NGOs, and other stakeholders working on environmental conservation. The variety of members worldwide help IUCN pool data and information required to conserve the environment and use natural resources sustainably. The organization was found in Fontainbleau, France, in 1948.

 IUCN collaborates with different organizations and guides governments at the national level to shape the biodiversity conservation strategy. The IUCN’s in-situ protection status categories help in establishing national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, and biosphere reserves. The IUCN’s red list is a comprehensive list of flora and fauna facing different levels of extinction threat. It also works closely with UNESCO in the conservation of natural heritage sites. IUCN helps conventions like CBD, CITES and Ramsar Convention, etc., in implementing biodiversity conservation.

4.4.8 Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES)

It is an international agreement between member nations to check on international trade of wildlife species of plants and animals so that their existence is not threatened. The CITES resolution was adopted in 1963 and came into force on 1st July 1975. The convention maintains a check on live animals and plants’ trade and a wide range of products derived from them, e.g., exotic leather and furs, timber products, elephant tusks, tiger skin, other body parts, etc.

CITES ensure that the trade of any such plants, animals, and products is authorized through a licensing system, and scientific authorities are guiding on the extent of trade. Convention has an extensive list of species covered under appendix I, II, and III and the levels to protect them from exploitation. To date, over 35000 species of plants and animals are listed under CITES. Not all the species listed are endangered or threatened in existence but enlisting them makes the sustainable use of natural resources more viable for the future.

4.4.9 Ramsar Convention on Wetlands

The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands (waterfowl convention) is a framework convention for conserving wetlands and wise use of its resources. The Convention was adopted on 2nd February 1971 in the city of Ramsar, Iran, and came into force in 1975. The convention uses the term wetlands broadly and includes water bodies like lakes, rivers, deltas, mangroves, coastal areas, and man-made bodies like ricefields, reservoirs, etc.  In order to become a member of the convention, the country has to designate at least one site of ecological importance in the country and cooperate to manage the transboundary wetlands. To date, there are 171 member parties to the convention.

The convention works in close association with six other International Organisation Partners (IOPs) working on nature conservation that includes IUCN, World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) International, Wetlands International, Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust and International Water Management Institute (IWMI) and Birdlife International for proper management of wetlands. India has 37 Ramsar sites (wetlands of international importance) that include some of the major lakes like Chilika Lake in Odisha, Wular Lake in Jammu and Kashmir, Hussainsagar Lake in Hyderabad, and others.

4.4.10 Basel Convention on Transboundary Movement of Hazardous Substances

It is a convention to check on the movement of hazardous substances across borders and prevent it from being disposed of in any particular region. The convention aims to reduce the generation of hazardous waste and ensure its disposal in an environmentally sound manner. In its annexures I, VIII, and IX, it classifies and describes two types of waste: hazardous waste and ‘other wastes that require special consideration for management and disposal.

The convention was adopted on 22nd March 1989 in Basel, Switzerland, and came into force on 5th May 1992. The transfer of hazardous waste can only occur between countries as a bilateral agreement, even when one of the countries may not be a party to the convention. The convention also provides technical assistance for the management and disposal of wastes, especially to developing countries, to prevent its impacts on people’s health.

4.5 Environmental Ethics

Ethics is a philosophical term based on the morals of what humans believe is right and wrong. Environmental ethics describes the views of human beings towards the environment. Broadly, how we perceive the environment, ecosystems, and natural resources can be classified into three categories.

Environmental ethics is a philosophical term that explores the moral relationship between humans and the natural world. It seeks to address questions about how humans should treat the environment, including ecosystems, natural resources, and non-human life. These perspectives are often categorized into three primary views: anthropocentric, bio-centric, and eco-centric.

 

4.5.1 Anthropocentric View

It is a belief that puts humans, their needs at the focus and considers human beings the most important and dominant species on earth. It believes that all the earth’s resources belong to humans, and we can manage them. Some authors (Miller, Jr., G.T., 2007; Miller, and Spoolman,2013) explains it as a human-centered and lifecentered world view. It further explains that we would never run out of resources because of technological development and management, leading to the possibility of unfettered economic growth.This view considers that all the natural resources on earth belong to humans.

4.5.1 Anthropocentric View

The Anthropocentric View places humans and their needs at the center of the universe. This perspective believes that human beings are the most important species on Earth and that all natural resources exist for human use and management. It suggests that technological advances will allow humanity to control and use resources without running out. Advocates of this view often argue that human progress, including economic growth, is paramount and that the Earth’s resources can be exploited sustainably through proper management. This human-centered worldview sees nature as a tool for human benefit.

 

4.5.2 Bio-centric View

It states that human beings and other creatures of the world are part of nature and all are equal life forms. All the creatures of earth exist in interdependence with each other to maintain balance.This theory also suggests that we, as humans, have a moral responsibility towards fellow life forms. Conservationist Aldo Leopold, in an essay “Land Ethic” from the book ‘A Sand County Almanac’ published in 1949, described human beings’ responsibility to protect wilderness as part of the ethical treatment of fellow life forms (Misra and Pandey, 2018; Wright and Boorse, 2015). This view is sometimes also referred to as Environmental Stewardship, which highlights that we should not waste natural resources and our success depends on how well we manage earth’s life support system for us and the rest of nature (Miller, 2007).

4.5.2 Biocentric View

The Biocentric View recognizes that humans are one part of a larger natural community, and all living beings—humans, animals, plants—are interconnected and have intrinsic value. This view suggests that humans have a moral responsibility to protect and respect all life forms, not just their own. The concept was articulated by conservationist Aldo Leopold in his "Land Ethic," where he argued that humans should treat the land and wildlife with ethical care and responsibility. This perspective is rooted in the idea that the well-being of the planet depends on maintaining balance among all life forms and that we should manage natural resources to benefit both humans and other species.

 

4.5.3 Eco-centric View

It states that the environment and the nature in which we exist are far wider and more creative on their own. Humans are only one of the species found on earth and exist as part of the larger community. It acknowledges and appreciates the fact that every species has an intrinsic value attached to it. Every species plays an important role in the functioning of natural processes and is valuable for the ecosystem.

4.5.3 Ecocentric View

The Ecocentric View goes beyond human-centered or life-centered ethics and places value on the entire ecosystem, viewing humans as just one species within a vast web of life. It argues that every species has intrinsic value, regardless of its utility to humans. According to this perspective, humans should live in harmony with nature, acknowledging the importance of all organisms and their roles in sustaining ecological balance. The Ecocentric View emphasizes that environmental sustainability is not only about conserving resources but also about respecting and preserving the entire ecosystem for its own sake.

 

Environmental sustainability is intricately linked to environmental ethics as far as the conservation of resources for future generations is concerned (Sulphey and Safeer, 2017). The environmental ethics we follow today, says a lot about our sustenance on earth, and certain ethics have been part of our tradition for a long time.The existence of Sacred Groves in different parts of our country shows that conservation to protect all the essential ecosystem functions is not a new concept for us. Religions like Hinduism, Islam, Jainism, Buddhism, and Sikhism, all preach to conserve the environment (Misra and Pandey, 2018). Development accompanied by the code of ethics can take us a long way on the road to environmental sustainability.

This view connects environmental sustainability with environmental ethics, highlighting the moral duty to protect the Earth’s resources for future generations. Various cultures and religions, such as Hinduism, Islam, Jainism, Buddhism, and Sikhism, have long advocated for environmental conservation through ethical teachings, underscoring that the idea of conserving nature is not a modern concept but deeply embedded in tradition.

 

In summary:

• Anthropocentric View: Human-centered; nature exists for human use and management.
• Biocentric View: Life-centered; all living beings are interconnected and have intrinsic value.
• Ecocentric View: Ecosystem-centered; the Earth’s systems and species have intrinsic value, and humans must live in harmony with nature.

 

 

The three environmental views focus on how humans relate to nature:

1.      Anthropocentric View: Humans are the most important species, and nature exists primarily for human use and management. It believes technological advances can help humans manage resources sustainably.

2.      Biocentric View: Humans are part of nature, and all life forms have equal value. It emphasizes our moral responsibility to protect all living beings, as they are interconnected.

3.      Ecocentric View: Focuses on the entire ecosystem, valuing all species and their roles in maintaining ecological balance. Humans are one part of this larger community and should live in harmony with nature.

These views shape how we approach environmental sustainability and conservation, with some cultures and religions supporting nature preservation through ethical teachings.

 

4.5 Environmental Ethics

Environmental ethics is a philosophical term that explores the moral relationship between humans and the natural world. It seeks to address questions about how humans should treat the environment, including ecosystems, natural resources, and non-human life. These perspectives are often categorized into three primary views: anthropocentric, bio-centric, and eco-centric.

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4.5.1 Anthropocentric View

The anthropocentric view places humans at the center of moral concern. It sees the environment primarily as a resource to benefit humanity.

Key Principles:

• Nature and resources exist to fulfill human needs, such as economic growth, technological advancement, and survival.
• Environmental conservation is pursued only when it serves human interests, such as clean air, fresh water, or fertile soil for agriculture.
• Human well-being is prioritized over other species and ecosystems.

Criticism:
This view is often criticized for leading to overexploitation of resources, neglecting the intrinsic value of non-human life, and contributing to environmental degradation.

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4.5.2 Bio-centric View

The bio-centric view assigns intrinsic value to all living organisms, regardless of their utility to humans. It emphasizes the moral worth of individual plants, animals, and other forms of life.

Key Principles:

• All living beings have the right to exist and flourish.
• Humans are considered one species among many, not superior or more valuable.
• Actions are considered ethical if they respect and protect the rights of all life forms.

Criticism:
While promoting equality among species, this view may overlook the complexities of human reliance on natural resources and ecosystems, making it difficult to balance human needs with the preservation of all life.

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4.5.3 Eco-centric View

The eco-centric view expands the focus to include ecosystems and the environment as a whole. It emphasizes the interconnectedness of all living and non-living components of the Earth.

Key Principles:

• The environment, including water, soil, air, and non-living elements, has intrinsic value.
• Ecosystem health and stability are prioritized over the needs of individual species, including humans.
• Humans have a responsibility to protect the integrity of ecosystems and the balance of nature.

Criticism:
Eco-centrism can sometimes conflict with immediate human needs, such as housing, agriculture, and economic development, making it challenging to implement in practical policy decisions.

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Conclusion

Environmental ethics provides a framework for understanding and addressing the moral dimensions of human-environment interactions. Whether through anthropocentric, bio-centric, or eco-centric perspectives, environmental ethics challenges us to reconsider our responsibilities to the planet and adopt more sustainable and equitable practices.

 

4.6 Let Us Sum Up

The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) were eight goals that the United Nations member states agreed to achieve by 2015:

·         Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger

·         Achieve universal primary education

·         Promote gender equality and empower women

·         Reduce child mortality

·         Improve maternal health

·         Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases

·         Ensure environmental sustainability

·         Develop a global partnership for development 

The MDGs were derived from the United Nations Millennium Declaration, signed in September 2000. The goals were intended to be achieved by 2015, and the MDGs era ended in 2016. 

Here are some of the achievements of the MDGs:

·         Access to drinking water

In 2012, 89% of the world's population had access to an improved source of drinking water, up from 76% in 1990. 

·         HIV/AIDS

The number of new HIV infections fell from 3.5 million in 2000 to 2.1 million in 2013. 

·         Malaria

The universal malaria incidence rate was reduced by an estimated 37%, and the mortality rate by 58%. 

·         Tuberculosis

The TB mortality rate reduced by 45% between 1990 and 2013, while prevalence rate fell by 41%. 

 

In this unit, we discussed the concept of sustainable development and the essential criteria to make it applicable. Various goals, like, the Millennium Developmet Goals and the Sustainable Development Goals are set from time to time along with their indicators to check its implementation status. As the idea of sustainable development is holistic and comprises of environmental conservation and social justice, it can be successful only when the whole world takes action in a concerted manner.

With the help of international organisations like United Nations, many international conventions and protocols have been formulated and implemented successfully for environmental conservation and climate change prevention. Conferences like the Stockholm Conference, 1972, the Earth Summit, 1992, the Kyoto Protocol, 1997, and many more are landmarks to show that if the countries are willing and come forward to take action, the earth can be saved. The success of all the efforts ultimately depends on how we perceive the Earth and the environment.