MEV 019: Unit 09 - Sampling Distributions

 UNIT 9: SAMPLING DISTRIBUTIONS


9.1 Introduction

In statistics, we often cannot examine an entire population because it may be too large, costly, or time-consuming. Instead, we study a sample and use the information to make inferences about the population.
However, different samples from the same population can yield slightly different results. Sampling distributions help us understand the variability of such sample-based statistics.

This unit introduces the concept of sampling, sampling distributions, standard error, and exact probability distributions like the chi-square, t, and F distributions.


9.2 Objectives

After completing this unit, you will be able to:

  • Explain the basics of sampling and sampling distributions.
  • Define and calculate the standard error.
  • State and interpret the Central Limit Theorem.
  • Describe and use sampling distributions of mean, proportion, and their differences.
  • Understand the chi-square, t, and F distributions and their applications.

9.3 Basics of Sampling

Population – The complete set of items of interest.
Sample – A subset of the population selected for study.

Reasons for Sampling:

  • Practicality
  • Cost efficiency
  • Time savings

Types of Sampling:

  • Probability Sampling (e.g., simple random, stratified, cluster, systematic)
  • Non-Probability Sampling (e.g., convenience, quota, judgmental)

9.4 Sampling Distribution

A sampling distribution is the probability distribution of a given statistic (like the mean) calculated from all possible samples of a fixed size drawn from a population.

9.4.1 Standard Error (SE)

The standard deviation of a sampling distribution is called the standard error.

For sample mean:

SEXˉ=σnSE_{\bar{X}} = \frac{\sigma}{\sqrt{n}}SEXˉ​=n​σ​

Where:

  • σ\sigmaσ = population standard deviation
  • nnn = sample size

For sample proportion:

SEp=P(1−P)nSE_{p} = \sqrt{\frac{P(1-P)}{n}}SEp​=nP(1−P)​​

Where:

  • PPP = population proportion

9.4.2 Central Limit Theorem (CLT)

The CLT states that, for a large sample size, the sampling distribution of the sample mean is approximately normal, regardless of the shape of the population distribution.
This is the basis for using normal probability theory in many statistical procedures.


9.5 Sampling Distribution of Statistics

9.5.1 Sampling Distribution of Mean

If population mean = μ\muμ and standard deviation = σ\sigmaσ, then:

  • Mean of sampling distribution: μXˉ=μ\mu_{\bar{X}} = \muμXˉ​=μ
  • Standard deviation: σXˉ=σn\sigma_{\bar{X}} = \frac{\sigma}{\sqrt{n}}σXˉ​=n​σ​

9.5.2 Sampling Distribution of Difference in Two Means

For two independent samples:

SEXˉ1−Xˉ2=σ12n1+σ22n2SE_{\bar{X}_1 - \bar{X}_2} = \sqrt{\frac{\sigma_1^2}{n_1} + \frac{\sigma_2^2}{n_2}}SEXˉ1​−Xˉ2​​=n1​σ12​​+n2​σ22​​​

9.5.3 Sampling Distribution of Proportion

If population proportion = PPP, then:

SEp=P(1−P)nSE_{p} = \sqrt{\frac{P(1-P)}{n}}SEp​=nP(1−P)​​

9.5.4 Sampling Distribution of Difference in Two Proportions

For two independent samples:

SEp1−p2=P1(1−P1)n1+P2(1−P2)n2SE_{p_1 - p_2} = \sqrt{\frac{P_1(1-P_1)}{n_1} + \frac{P_2(1-P_2)}{n_2}}SEp1​−p2​​=n1​P1​(1−P1​)​+n2​P2​(1−P2​)​​


9.6 Exact Sampling Distributions

Some statistics follow specific theoretical distributions exactly when certain conditions are met.

9.6.1 Chi-square Distribution ( χ2\chi^2χ2 )

  • Used in tests of independence and goodness-of-fit.
  • Always positive and skewed right.
  • Shape depends on degrees of freedom (df).

Formula for variance estimation:

χ2=(n−1)s2σ2\chi^2 = \frac{(n-1)s^2}{\sigma^2}χ2=σ2(n−1)s2​


9.6.2 Student’s t-Distribution

  • Used when population standard deviation is unknown and sample size is small.
  • Symmetrical like the normal distribution but has heavier tails.
  • As nnn increases, t-distribution approaches the normal distribution.

Test statistic:

t=Xˉ−μs/nt = \frac{\bar{X} - \mu}{s/\sqrt{n}}t=s/n​Xˉ−μ​


9.6.3 F-Distribution

  • Used to compare variances of two populations.
  • Always positive and skewed right.
  • Ratio of two independent chi-square variables divided by their degrees of freedom.

Formula:

F=s12/σ12s22/σ22F = \frac{s_1^2 / \sigma_1^2}{s_2^2 / \sigma_2^2}F=s22​/σ22​s12​/σ12​​


9.7 Let Us Sum Up

  • Sampling allows us to make conclusions about a population from a subset.
  • Sampling distributions describe the variability of sample statistics.
  • Standard error measures how far sample statistics are likely to be from the population parameters.
  • The Central Limit Theorem ensures approximate normality for large samples.
  • Exact sampling distributions like chi-square, t, and F have specific applications in hypothesis testing.

9.8 Key Words

  • Sampling Distribution – Distribution of a statistic over repeated sampling.
  • Standard Error – Standard deviation of a sampling distribution.
  • Central Limit Theorem – Sampling means tend toward a normal distribution as sample size increases.
  • Chi-square Distribution – Distribution used for categorical data tests.
  • t-Distribution – Used for small samples with unknown population standard deviation.
  • F-Distribution – Used to compare variances.

 

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